Studies show that environmental modifications can produce profound alterations in the normal development of the visual cortex and its connectivity. For the other hand it is possible that in natural conditions, animal species have developed genetic adaptations to the different conditions of luminance in which they normally behave. Recently have observed significant changes in cortical neuronal density of area 17 (primary visual area), in two sympatric Chilean rodents with different daily activity (Phyllotis darwini and Abrothrix olivaceus), but have not yet determined the genetic nature or plastic such differences. In this paper we compared species with a closer phylogenetic relation so as to minimize the taxonomic variable. We studied the primary visual cortex (area 17) of wild rodents native of the species Octodon degus (n=5) and Octodon bridgesi (n=3), belonging to the Octodontidae family, in order to show changes in the neuronal density, using celloidin-embedded, 40µm-thickness Nissl sections, with the aid of an optical dissector. In addition, we performed a quantification of the neuronal density of the motor cortex of the species under study. O. degus, bearing a crepuscular-diurnal activity pattern, showed a lower neuronal density in the visual cortex (34.32 ± 2.51 x10(4) neuron/mm³) than that observed in O. bridgesi (39.55 ± 0.64 x10(4) neuron/mm³), a species that exhibits a nocturnal phase preference, which was statistically significant (t=3.44; p<0.05). These differences might be related to differences in daily activity in two species, but we cannot discount the influence of other factors.

Estudios experimentales demuestran que modificaciones medioambientales pueden producir alteraciones en el desarrollo normal de la corteza cerebral visual y sus conexiones. Por otra parte, es posible que en condiciones naturales, las especies animales hayan desarrollado adaptaciones genéticas a las distintas condiciones de luminosidad en que realizan su actividad. Recientemente, se han observado variaciones significativas en la densidad neuronal cortical del área 17 (área visual primaria), en roedores silvestres con diferentes períodos diarios de actividad y relación filogenética distante (Abrothrix olivaceus y Phyllotis darwini), pero aún no se ha determinado la naturaleza genética o plástica de dichas diferencias. En este trabajo se compararon especies con una mayor cercanía filogenética, para disminuir al máximo la variable taxonómica. Se estudió la corteza visual primaria (área 17), de roedores silvestres nativos, de las especies Octodon degus (n=5) y Octodon bridgesi (n=3), pertenecientes a la Familia Octodontidae, con el propósito de evidenciar cambios a través de la medición de la densidad neuronal, mediante la técnica del disector óptico, en cortes de 40 µm, incluidos en celoidina y teñidos con Nissl. Complementariamente, se realizó una cuantificación de la densidad neuronal de la corteza motora de las especies en estudio. O. degus, que presenta un período de actividad diurna, evidenció una densidad neuronal menor en la corteza visual (34,32 ± 2,51 x 10(4) neuronas/mm³), que la observada en O. bridgesi (39,55 ± 0,64 x 10(4) neuronas/mm³), especie de período de actividad nocturna; lo cual fue estadísticamente significativo (t=3,44; p<0,05). Las diferencias encontradas se podrían relacionar con el tipo de condiciones de luminosidad en que se desenvuelven dichas especies, aunque no se puede descartar la influencia de otros factores.

Adult rats malnourished prenatally with a low-protein, isocaloric diet showed smaller median fiber diameter of myelinated and unmyelinated fibers and a higher axonal density in the callosal splenium than controls. These findings suggest (i) that cortico-cortical (interhemispheric) connections are vulnerable to protein malnutrition; and (ii) this may affect interhemispheric conduction velocity, particularly in visual connections

Ratas malnutridas prenatalmente con una dieta isocalórica y baja en proteínas, presentaron un menor diámetro axonal promedio en el esplenio callosal que los animales control, tanto de las fibras mielínicas como amielínicas. También se observó una mayor densidad axonal promedio, con respecto a los controles. Estas observaciones sugieren que: 1) las conexiones cortico-corticales (interhemisféricas) son vulnerables a la malnutrición proteica; y 2) lo anterior tendría incidencia en la velocidad de conducción interhemisférica, en particular con lo que dice relación con las conexiones visuales

Several studies show that environmental modifications (i.e. nutritional or sensory) can produce profound alterations in the normal development of the cerebral cortex and its connectivity. In addition, it is possible that in natural conditions animal species have developed neuronal adaptations to the different conditions of luminance in which they normally behave. In this work we studied the 17 visual area (primary visual cortex), of two sympatric Chilean rodents, a continuous activity period species (Abrothrix olivaceus, n=7) and a nocturnal species (Phyllotis darwini, n=7), in order to detect species differences in neuronal density in celloidin-embedded, 40 mm-thickness Nissl sections, with the aid of the optical disector. A. olivaceus showed a decreased neuronal density in relation to P. darwini (34.75x104+1.35x104 neurons/mm3 against 37.23x104+2.2x104 neurons/mm3), which was statistically significant (t=2.54;p<0.05). These differences might be related to differences in daily activity in the two species

Diversos estudios experimentales demuestran que modificaciones medioambientales (por ejemplo: nutricionales y lumínicas), pueden producir alteraciones en el desarrollo normal de la corteza visual y sus conexiones. Por otro lado, es posible que en condiciones naturales, las especies animales hayan desarrollado adaptaciones a las distintas condiciones de luminosidad en que realizan su actividad. Por ende, la finalidad de este trabajo, fue estudiar la corteza visual primaria (área 17), de dos especies de roedores silvestres, relacionados filogenéticamente, pero con diferentes períodos de actividad; Abrothrix olivaceus (n=7) y Phyllotis darwini (n=7), con el propósito de evidenciar cambios detectados a través de la medición de la densidad neuronal, mediante la técnica del disector óptico, en cortes de 40µm de grosor, incluidos en celoidina y teñidos con cresyl violeta (Nissl). A. olivaceus, el cual presenta un periodo de actividad continuo en la zona central de Chile, evidenció una densidad neuronal menor (34.75 x 10(4) ± 1.35 x 10(4) neuronas/mm³) que la observada en P. darwini (37.23 x 10(4) ± 2.20 x 10(4) neuronas/mm³), especie de actividad nocturna en la misma región del país; siendo lo anterior estadísticamente significativo (t=2.54; p<0.05). Las diferencias encontradas se relacionarían con el tipo de conducta que presentan ambas especies, dado principalmente por las características de luminosidad en que se desenvuelven, así como también, de otros factores que se relacionarían con este parámetro, como son la relación predador-presa y la alimentación, entre otros

Analysis of regional corpus callosum fiber composition reveals that callosal regions connecting primary and secondary sensory areas tend to have higher proportions of coarse-diameter, highly myelinated fibers than callosal regions connecting so-called higher-order areas. This suggests that in primary/secondary sensory areas there are strong timing constraints for interhemispheric communication, which may be related to the process of midline fusion of the two sensory hemifields across the hemispheres. We postulate that the evolutionary origin of the corpus callosum in placental mammals is related to the mechanism of midline fusion in the sensory cortices, which only in mammals receive a topographically organized representation of the sensory surfaces. The early corpus callosum may have also served as a substrate for growth of fibers connecting higher-order areas, which possibly participated in the propagation of neuronal ensembles of synchronized activity between the hemispheres. However, as brains became much larger, the increasingly longer interhemispheric distance may have worked as a constraint for efficient callosal transmission. Callosal fiber composition tends to be quite uniform across species with different brain sizes, suggesting that the delay in callosal transmission is longer in bigger brains. There is only a small subset of large-diameter callosal fibers whose size increases with increasing interhemispheric distance. These limitations in interhemispheric connectivity may have favored the development of brain lateralization in some species like humans. "...if the currently received statements are correct, the appearance of the corpus callosum in the placental mammals is the greatest and most sudden modification exhibited by the brain in the whole series of vertebrated animals..." T.H. Huxley (1).

This article proposes a comprehensive view of the origin of the mammalian brain. We discuss i) from which region in the brain of a reptilian-like ancestor did the isocortex originate, and ii) the origin of the multilayered structure of the isocortex from a simple-layered structure like that observed in the cortex of present-day reptiles. Regarding question i there have been two alternative hypotheses, one suggesting that most or all the isocortex originated from the dorsal pallium, and the other suggesting that part of the isocortex originated from a ventral pallial component. The latter implies that a massive tangential migration of cells from the ventral pallium to the dorsal pallium takes place in isocortical development, something that has not been shown. Question ii refers to the origin of the six-layered isocortex from a primitive three-layered cortex. It is argued that the superficial isocortical layers can be considered to be an evolutionary acquisition of the mammalian brain, since no equivalent structures can be found in the reptilian brain. Furthermore, a characteristic of the isocortex is that it develops according to an inside-out neurogenetic gradient, in which late-produced cells migrate past layers of early-produced cells. It is proposed that the inside-out neurogenetic gradient was partly achieved by the activation of a signaling pathway associated with the Cdk5 kinase and its activator p35, while an extracellular protein called reelin (secreted in the marginal zone during development) may have prevented migrating cells from penetrating into the developing marginal zone (future layer I).

Rats malnourished prenatally and during lactancy with a low-protein, isocaloric diet were shown to have smaller corpus callosums than controls at 45-65 days of age, which was consistent with differences in brain weight. Prenatally malnourished rats rehabilitated with a high-protein diet during lactancy showed normal brain weight and development of the mid-third and posterior third of the callosum, but reduced size of the anterior third. These findings suggest (i) that cortico-cortical (interhemispheric) connections are vulnerable to protein malnutrition; and (ii) the anterior callosum, connecting frontal areas across the midline is particulary affected by this type of malnutrition despite dietary rehabilitation during postnatal life

Ratas malnutridas prenatalmente y durante la lactancia con una dieta isocalórica y baja en proteínas, presentaron un cuerpo calloso más pequeño que los controles, a los 45-52 días de edad, lo cual fue consistente con las diferencias en los pesos cerebrales. En cambio, ratas malnutridas prenatalmente y rehabilitadas durante la lactancia con una dieta alta en proteínas, mostraron normalidad en el peso cerebral y en el desarrollo de los tercios medio y posterior del cuerpo calloso. Estas observaciones sugieren: 1) que las conexiones cortico-corticales (interhemisféricas) son vulnerables a la malnutrición proteica; y 2) el cuerpo calloso anterior, que conecta áreas frontales a través de la línea media, es particularmente afectado por este tipo de malnutrición, a pesar de una rehabilitación dietaria durante la vida postnatal